Intraspecific communication in frogs plays an important role in the recognition of conspecifics in general and of potential rivals or mates in particular and therefore with relevant consequences for pre-zygotic reproductive isolation. We investigate intraspecific communication in Hylodes japi, an endemic Brazilian torrent frog with territorial males and an elaborate courtship behavior. We describe its repertoire of acoustic signals as well as one of the most complex repertoires of visual displays known in anurans, including five new visual displays. Previously unknown in frogs, we also describe a bimodal inter-sexual communication system where the female stimulates the male to emit a courtship call. As another novelty for frogs, we show that in addition to choosing which limb to signal with, males choose which of their two vocal sacs will be used for visual signaling. We explain how and why this is accomplished. Control of inflation also provides additional evidence that vocal sac movement and color must be important for visual communication, even while producing sound. Through the current knowledge on visual signaling in Neotropical torrent frogs (i.e. hylodids), we discuss and highlight the behavioral diversity in the family Hylodidae. Our findings indicate that communication in species of Hylodes is undoubtedly more sophisticated than we expected and that visual communication in anurans is more widespread than previously thought. This is especially true in tropical regions, most likely due to the higher number of species and phylogenetic groups and/or to ecological factors, such as higher microhabitat diversity.
Along the Rio Grande torrent
Since it is clear that studies involving species of Hylodes are critical to better understanding frog communication, we investigate how the Brazilian torrent frog Hylodes japi communicates intraspecifically. Hylodes japi was recently described as endemic to the montane Atlantic forest of Serra do Japi, in southeastern Brazil [26]. This small frog is mainly diurnal, however it may also exhibit crepuscular and nocturnal reproductive activity [26, 27]. The species is rheophilic, has territorial males and an elaborate courtship behavior, as do other members of the family Hylodidae. The reproductive biology of H. japi is associated with fast-flowing montane streams where males construct underwater chambers for egg deposition; the tadpoles are exotrophic [26]. Our goals were to: (1) characterize visual displays and acoustic signals performed by males and females of H. japi, and to identify their respective roles and associated behavioral contexts; (2) investigate communication during their elaborate courtship ritual, including analyzing potential multimodal compositions and their roles; and (3) characterize the ways by which a sender male controls signal emission according to the position of the receiver male. We discuss the behavioral diversity in the family Hylodidae in light of current knowledge on visual signaling in Neotropical torrent frogs.
Among hylodids, the currently known repertoire of visual displays is most complex in H. japi (Table 3). In fact, Hylodes japi has one of the most diverse repertoires of visual displays known within the order Anura. The five new visual displays that we described and categorized here correspond to 20.8% of the visual displays recognized for members of the family Hylodidae and around 13.5% for anurans. We trust that our results on visual communication are not an exception among hylodids (and anurans in general), but a consequence of the time invested to understand the behaviors. Among hylodids, the most studied species have more diverse repertoires, such as C. schmidti, H. phyllodes, and H. japi ([21, 34, 37]; present study; see Table 3). For Hylodes species, some behaviors, such as arm lifting and arm waving, are only distinguishable via video analysis. Moreover, other visual displays are performed only during specific situations, making them difficult to observe (because they are rarely executed). Head snaking, for example, was recorded only twice among all studies on hylodids; during courtship, once in H. phyllodes [34] and in the present study. The accepted male is the only individual that performs head snaking and only during courtship. From the set of information presented here, it is plausible to expect that the complexity observed in the visual communication of H. japi is similarly widespread within the family Hylodidae, or at least among Hylodes species. Complexity of the visual communication system may be a pattern for the Brazilian torrent frogs (Hylodes species), and most likely as a phylogenetic trait of the genus. Neotropical torrent frogs (i.e. hylodids) still deserve attention, since new studies on their communication have potential to help clarify behavioral patterns and multimodal compositions, and even uncover other new behaviors. Behavioral patterns tend to be similar within families and within genera [2].
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The torrent is formed by the confluence of two smaller streams, the Rio Valgrande and the Rio Pogallo, at Ponte Casletto in Val Grande. Its drainage basin comprises the areas of Val Grande and Val Pogallo; its course and its tributaries are characterised by deep ravines and gorges.
The San Bernardino provided a source of hydropower for the factories which were built along its course and its water was employed in the bleaching processes of the adjacent textile factories. In 1892 Carlo Sutermeister, an industrialist of Swiss origins, constructed the first Italian hydroelectric power station capable of distributing electrical power; it supplied the inhabitants of Intra, Pallanza and other places in the area as well as the factories nearby. Subsequently the power plant of Rovegro was built and today there are three power stations in use on the river.
Kayaking can be enjoyed in certain tracts of this Alpine torrent and, despite the chilly water, swimming is a popular pastime, especially at the locality Santino. Fishing is allowed, although only for brown trout (Salmo trutta), and only outside the protected reserves which form part of the national park.
It is interesting, then, to look back nearly 180 years at another caravan that largely walked from Santa Fé, New Mexico to greater Los Angeles and bitter invective about them made by a political figure. On this day in 1841, approximately 65 persons, including Americans, Europeans and New Mexicans, arrived in this region after a 1,200-mile trek over a little more than two months along the Old Spanish Trail.
That happened about the first of September 1841, several months after the Bidwell-Bartleson Party left Sapling Grove, Missouri and became the first of a legion of wagon trains to ply the famed California and Oregon trails across prairies and mountains west, opening the coast to overland migration. Rowland and Workman were joined by about two dozen other Americans and Europeans on their departure and then were accompanied by a large contingent of New Mexicans at the town of Abiquiu, not far northwest along the trail.
the naturalized foreigners Juan Rooland and William Workman, traitors who have gone to California to seduce and confuse its inhabitants, whose exemplary punishment would be the only dike to the torrent of evils that they have committed in this department under my command, and will be the ones which undoubtedly they will commit in the Californias.
1,160 cubic feet per secondFlow of Mill Creek upstream from Moab, Utah, on Aug. 21 following a sudden deluge. The stream had been running at about 15 cfs just moments earlier, and the unexpected torrent flooded Moab streets and businesses. This does not jibe with typical La Niña patterns.
The early colonists encouraged navigation along the lower channel with some success. However, a natural log raft that formed 10 miles from the Gulf blocked river traffic after 1839, although shallow-draught vessels occasionally ventured as far upstream as Austin.
Navigation was developed along its lower course with several riverport towns, such as Sebastopol in Trinity County. For many years, there has been a basin-wide movement for navigation, conservation, and utilization of its water. The Trinity River Authority is a state agency and the Trinity Improvement Association is a publicly supported nonprofit organization that has advocated its development.
The river takes its name from the Neches Indians, who the early Spanish explorers found living along its banks. Principal tributary of the Neches, and comparable with the Neches in length and flow above their confluence, is the Angelina River, so named for Angelina (Little Angel), a Hainai Indian girl who converted to Christianity and played an important role in the early development of this region.
This part is devolved to the torrents of orographic and hydrographic bank of the South or the right of the Dora Baltea; a subsequent work will be dedicated to the opposite or Northern aimed at Buthiers Torrents and other major rivers that run through the Valley in East above the town of Pont Saint Martin, at the end of the Aosta Valley Region, but only welding together all that Dore starting to North from the two Ferret Hills, just to East of Mont Dolent (3819m), descend to form such important tributaries to Dora Baltea. In fact at the end of the Veny Valley takes early that area which is the orographic bank and right bank or Southern of the Valley of Aosta. Not starting from the Col de la Seigne (2514m) below the Aiguilles des Glaciers and Trélatête in Lex Blanche Vallon, and from Mont Blanc to the Southern end act at the end of Veny Valley takes early that area which is the orographic bank and right bank or South of the Valley of Aosta. This leaves the border with France at the end of the Rhêmes Valley, where this continues in France with the Valley of the Isère River. We will then have a "Dore" succession from Northwest to Southeast bordering the Valley of Champorcher that we can summarize, although the last, or the stream that descends from the Valley of Cogne, is not exactly a Dora but a "Big Water" or Grand'Eyvia. But, you know, those inhabitants of Cogne are always "special". 2ff7e9595c
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